حروب الامبراطورية الرومانية

الحروب الرومانية الفارسية
الحروب الرومانية الفارسية
التاريخ 92 ق.م.–627 م
المكان آسيا الصغرى, البلقان, القوقاز
النتيجة Status quo ante bellum; وعقد تحالف ضد العرب لاحقاً.

الأطراف المتخاصمة
الجمهورية الرومانية, التي خلفها الامبراطورية الرومانية والامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية لاحقاً الإمبراطوريات الپارثية والساسانية الفارسية
القادة
لوكيولس,
پومپي,
كراسوس,
ماركوس أنطونيوس,
تراجان,
ڤالريان الأول,
يوليان,
بليساريوس,
هرقليوس Surena,
شاپور الأول,
شاپور الثاني,
Kavadh I,
خسرو الأول,
خسرو الثاني,
شاهين,
شهر براز,
Rhahzadh

ع • ن • تالحروب الرومانية الفارسيةكارهاي – المدائن (165) – المدائن (198) – نصيبين – Resaena – Misiche – Barbalissos – Edessa – Singara – Amida – المدائن (363) – سامراء - Anastasian War – الحرب الأيبرية – الحرب اللازكية – حرب 572–591 – أنطاكية – القدس – الإسكندرية – خلقدون – Issus – Sarus – القسطنطينية – نينوىالحروب الرومانية الفارسية كانت سلسلة من الصراعات بين العالم Greco-Roman وامبراطوريتين إيرانيتين متعاقبتين بدأت كحرب بين الجمهورية الرومانية في أواخرها والإمبراطورية الپارثية في 92 ق.م. قبل أن يواصلها الامبراطورية الرومانية والامبراطورية الساسانية في فارس. الصراع الطويل المرير بين الخصمين انتهى أخيراً كصراع بين الامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية (البيزنطية) والامبراطورية الساسانية في عام 627 م, تلاه مباشرة الفتوحات العربية في مناطق كل من الامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية والساسانية من عام 632 م.

Although warfare lasted for seven centuries between the Romans and the Persians, neither side was ever able to dominate the other. A game of "Tug of War" basically ensued with towns, fortifications, and provinces being continuously sacked, captured, destroyed, and changing sides frequently. Neither side had the logistical strength or manpower to maintain such lengthy campaigns so far from their borders, and thus neither could advance too far without risking stretching their frontiers too thin.

All of the energy expended over the Roman-Persians Wars amounted to little more than nothing for either side as the Muslim onslaught during the 6th century defeated the war-exhausted Persian Empire and deprived the Eastern Roman Empire of its الشرق الأدنىern and شمال أفريقياn territories soon after the end of the Roman-Persian conflict.

فهرست [إخفاء]
1 الامبراطورية الرومانية ضد پارثيا
2 الحروب الرومانية الساسانية
2.1 الصراعات الرومانية الساسانية المبكرة
2.2 أنستاسيان والحروب الأيبرية
2.3 جستنيان ضد خسرو الأول
2.4 حرب القوقاز
2.5 الأوج
3 التبعات
4 التقييم
5 المصادر والهوامش
6 المصادر
6.1 المصادر الرئيسية
6.2 مصادر ثانوية
7 قراءات اضافية
8 وصلات خارجية

الامبراطورية الرومانية ضد پارثيا

پارثيا, وممالكها التابعة, وجيرانها في عام 1 م.


الحروب الرومانية الساسانية
لمزيد من التفاصيل حول هذا الموضوع, انظر الحروب البيزنطية الساسانية.
الصراعات الرومانية الساسانية المبكرة

إذلال ڤالريان على يد شاپور (هانز هولباين الأصغر, 1521, قلم وحبر أسود على اسكتش طباشير, Kunstmuseum Basel).أنستاسيان والحروب الأيبرية

Map showing the cities held by both powers prior to the Anastasian war (purple is for the Byzantine strongholds, red for the Persian ones). المقال الرئيسي: الحرب الأناستاسية و الحرب الأيبرية



جستنيان ضد خسرو الأول
انظر أيضاً: الحرب اللازكية

مشهد قنص يبين الملك خسرو الأول (الفن الساساني, من القرن السابع، Cabinet des Medailles, باريس).
مملكة لازكاحرب القوقاز

الامبراطورية الساسانية وجيرانها (بما فيهم الامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية عام 600 ملمزيد من التفاصيل حول هذا الموضوع, انظر الحرب الرومانية الفارسية 572-591.



الأوج
انظر أيضاً: حصار القسطنطينية (626)

الامبراطورية الساسانية في أقصى اتساع لها ح. 610 م. المنطقة المظللة (فريگيا/ليديا) تبين ممالك تابعة تحت السيطرة العسكرية الساسانية.أثناء حملات موريس على البلقان, تم إغتياله هو وأسرته على أيدي فوكاس في نوفمبر 602. انتهز خسرو الثاني الحدث كذريعة ليهاجم الامبراطورية الرومانية الشرقية, وليعيد إخضاع مقاطعة الرافدين.[1] الحرب سارت لضالح الفرس في البداية, جزئياً بسبب القمع العنيف الذي تميز به حكم فوكاس وأزمة الخلافة التي اندلعت حين أرسل الجنرال هرقليوس ابن أخيه نيقتاس ليهاجم مصر, ممكناً ابنه هرقليوس الأصغر من المطالبة بالعرش في 610 م. Phocas was eventually deposed by Heraclius, who sailed to Constantinople from Carthage with an icon affixed to the prow of his ship.[1] By this time the Persians had conquered Mesopotamia and the Caucasus, and in 611 AD they overran Syria and entered Anatolia. A major counter-attack led by Heraclius in 613 AD was decisively defeated outside Antioch, and the Roman position collapsed; the Persians devastated parts of Asia Minor, and captured Chalcedon on the Bosporus.[1] Over the following decade the Persians were able to conquer Palestine and Egypt (by mid-621 AD the whole province was in their hands[1]) and to devastate Anatolia,[1] while the Avars and Slavs took advantage of the situation to overrun the Balkans, bringing the Roman Empire to the brink of destruction.


Cherub and Heraclius receiving the submission of Khosrau II; plaque from a cross (Champlevé enamel over gilt copper, 1160-1170, Paris, Louvre).During these years, Heraclius strove to rebuild his army, slashing non-military expenditure, devaluing the currency and melting down, with the backing of Patriarch Sergius, Church plate to raise the necessary funds to continue the war.[1] On April 5, 622, Heraclius left Constantinople, entrusting the city to Sergius and general Bonus as regents of his son. He assembled his forces in Asia Minor, probably in Bithynia, and, after he revived their broken morale, he launched a new counter-offensive, which took on the character of a holy war.[1] The Roman army proceeded to Armenia, inflicted a defeat on an army led by a Persian-allied Arab chief, and then won a victory over the Persians.[1] On March 25, 624 Heraclius left again Constantinople with his wife, and his two children; after he celebrated Easter in Nicomedia on April 15, he campaigned in the Caucasus, winning a series of victories in Azerbaijan and Armenia against Khosrau and his generals.[1] In 626 AD the Avars and Slavs besieged Constantinople, supported by a Persian army commanded by Shahrbaraz, but the siege ended in failure (the victory was attributed to the icons of the Virgin which were led in procession by Sergius about the walls of the city[1]), while a second Persian army under Shahin suffered another crushing defeat at the hands of Heraclius' brother Theodore.


The assassination of Khosrau II, in a Mughal manuscript of ca 1535, Persian poems are from Ferdowsi's ShahnamehLate in 627 AD Heraclius launched a winter offensive into Mesopotamia, where, despite the desertion of the Turkish contingent which had accompanied him, he defeated the Persians at the Battle of Nineveh. Continuing south along the Tigris he sacked Khosrau's great palace at Dastagird and was only prevented from attacking Ctesiphon by the destruction of the bridges on the Nahrawan Canal. Discredited by this series of disasters, Khosrau was overthrown and killed in a coup led by his son Kavadh II, who at once sued for peace, agreeing to withdraw from all occupied territories. In 629 AD Heraclius restored the True Cross to Jerusalem in a majestic ceremony.[1]

التبعات
The devastating impact of this last war, added to the cumulative effects of a century of almost continuous conflict, left both empires crippled. When Kavadh II died only months after coming to the throne, Persia was plunged into several years of dynastic turmoil and civil war. The Sassanids were further weakened by economic decline, heavy taxation from Khosrau II's campaigns, religious unrest, and the increasing power of the provincial landholders. The Roman Empire was even more severely affected, with its financial reserves exhausted by the war, the Balkans now largely in the hands of the Slavs,[1] Anatolia devastated by repeated Persian invasions and the empire's hold on its recently regained territories in the Caucasus, Syria, Mesopotamia, Palestine and Egypt loosened by many years of Persian occupation.[1]


right:الامبراطورية البيزنطية عام 626 م في عهد هرقليوس, المناطق المخططة هي أراض مازالت مهددة من الساسانيين
Right:Byzantine Empire by 650 AD: by this point the Sassanid Empire had fallen as well as Byzantine Syria, Palestine, and Egypt to the الخلافة العربية
لم يتح لأي من الأمبراطوريتين فرصة للنقاهة, إذ في خلال أعوام قليلة داهم كليهما العرب, الذين وحدهم الإسلام حديثاً.[1] According to George Liska, the "unnecessarily prolonged Byzantine-Persian conflict opened the way for Islam."[1] The Sassanid Empire rapidly succumbed to these attacks and was completely destroyed. During the الحروب البيزنطية العربية, the exhausted Roman Empire's recently regained southern provinces were also lost during the الفتح الإسلامي لسوريا, مصر and North Africa, reducing the empire to a territorial rump consisting of Anatolia and a scatter of islands and footholds in the Balkans and Italy.[1] These remaining lands were thoroughly impoverished by frequent attacks, marking the transition from classical urban civilisation to a more rural, medieval form of society. However, unlike Persia the Roman Empire (in its medieval form usually termed the Byzantine Empire) ultimately survived the Arab assault, holding onto its residual territories and decisively repulsing two Arab sieges of its capital Constantinople in 674-678 and 717-718.[1]

التقييم
الحروب الرومانية الفارسية have been characterized as "futile", and "both depressing and tedious to contemplate with."[1] In the long series of wars between the two powers, the frontier in upper Mesopotamia remained more or less constant. Historians point out that the stability of the frontier over the centuries is remarkable, although Nisibis, Singara, Dara and other cities of upper Mesopotamia changed hands from time to time, and the possession of these frontier cities gave one empire a trade advantage over the other. As William Bayne Fisher states:[1]

One has the impression that the blood spilled in the warfare between the two states brought as little real gain to one side or the other as the few meters of land gained at terrible cost in the trench warfare of the First World War.

John F. Haldon's analysis reveals another aspect of the wars, underscoring that, "although the conflicts between Persia and East Rome revolved around issues of strategic control around the eastern frontier, yet there was always a religious-ideological element present." A characteristic of the final phase of the conflict, when what had began in 611-612 as a war of raid was soon to be trasformed into a war of conquest, was the pre-emince of the Cross as a symbol of imperial victory, and of the strongly religious element in the Eastern Roman imperial propaganda; Heraclius himself cast Khosrau as the enemy of God, and authors of the sixth and seventh centuries were fiercely hostile to Persia.[1] In general the Romans regarded the Sassanids as a more serious threat than the Parthians; on the other side, the Sassanids regarded the Roman Empire as the enemy par excellence.[1]

As far as the tactics are concerned, Everett L. Wheeler asserts that the Parthians, like the Sassanids in the late third and fourth centuries, generally shunned sustained defense of Mesopotamia, when Romans invaded. The Iranian heartland would be, however, preserved, as the Roman expeditions exhausted their offensive impetus by the time they reached lower Mesopotamia, and their extended line of communications through territory not sufficiently pacified exposed them to revolts and counterattacks.[1] Wheeler argues that "the Sassanids, administratively more centralized than the Parthians, formally organized defense of their territory, although they lacked a standing army until Khosrau I."[1]

Militarily, the Sassanids continued the Parthians' heavy dependence on the combination of cataphracts (the heavy armored cavalry was provided by the aristocracy) and light-horse archers, adding a power force of war elephants obtained from India, but the traditional Persian weakness in the arm of infantry still applied, and their quality was inferior to the average Roman legion.[1] The growth in importance of heavily armed cavalry was a feature of both Roman and Persian armies after the third century AD, and until the end of the wars.[1]